Friday 2 September 2016

How To Improve Writing Skills In The Workplace

Why are good writing skills so crucial in the workplace? Communication skills are key to the operation of any business or place of employment. And written communication - whether good or bad - certainly has a major impact on the effectiveness and productivity of the workplace.
Poor written communication in the workplace can cause:
  • a poor company image. If you are lucky this can be contained within the company. If you are unlucky it can become visible to all outsiders - customers, suppliers, partners, competitors, etc. Once your image begins to "leak," for whatever reason, it is almost impossible to retrieve your good image.
  • loss of customers. Have you ever received a poorly written letter from a company with which you did business? Did it make you want to continue with that company, or take your business to another supplier that seemed more reliable and professional?
  • lost and wasted time. Those who are not fluid writers generally also are not quick writers.
  • loss of revenues and profits due to a reduction or loss of business.
  • growth in overhead and other costs from misunderstandings, employee dissatisfaction or turnover, inefficiencies, legal complications, etc.
  • improper application of procedures, damage to equipment, physical injury to workers, and more.
  • diminished morale. Employees can lose loyalty and respect for their workplace.
Good written communication in the workplace, however, can:
  • Make an enterprise appear reliable, professional and worthy of a customer's business, as well as improve customer loyalty
  • Improve the relationships between employees at every level
  • Engender employee loyalty and pride in the workplace
  • Make the workplace a more pleasant and safe environment
  • Save corporate time and money
  • Improve financial results
The important question is: How can written communication in the workplace be improved?
Every employee at every level should be encouraged to use a powerful English writing software program (other than just a simple word-processor) for instant spell checking, grammar checking, and contextual word and style enhancement. Everyone makes occasional written mistakes. But a good proofreading writer's program will detect and correct those instantly with the push of a single computer key. Even good writers will learn from such programs and improve their writing skills. Poor writers will see a major improvement.
A powerful but inexpensive writing software program is a great investment for all workers to improve their writing skills. Good English writing skills will make them more valuable employees.
It's even wiser for organizations to provide such software to all employees as powerful work tools. The benefits will more than cover the costs many times over, as employees learn and practice good written communication skills and add to the overall productivity, and profitability, of the business.

GCSE Coursework Examples Can Help Students Write Their Own Coursework Effectively

Coursework of any kind requires dedication, effort and time. In order to ensure that students get a good grade for coursework they need to apply themselves and be prepared for the grueling work load which comes with coursework. As there is much theoretical and practical elements to coursework it is important that students ensure that they do a good job. Many however, are not proficient with what they should do when doing GCSE coursework. In instances such as these few well written GCSE coursework examples can come to the student's rescue by providing and idea of how to approach the coursework task and what it should contain.
What is GCSE Coursework?
The General Certificate of Secondary Education is a certificate provided to students living in countries such as Wales, England and Northern Ireland. Students who complete form 5 and at the age group of 14 to 16 select certain subjects and take the exam. The GCSE curriculum now combines coursework and examinations to facilitate those students who find exam condition too stressful and unable to score well in them. Most coursework account for 30% of the overall grade while it may go up to 40% in some subjects. Therefore, students must ensure that they treat the coursework assignments with equal importance as the GCSE examinations itself.
As coursework requires students to submit written academic papers, it is important to gain a proper knowledge of writing them effectively. Different coursework has different ways of writing. For example, writing a geography coursework paper is different from writing an English coursework. Many students find the writing aspect of their coursework challenging as they need to combine many skills in to producing a well written academic paper. By going through a few GCSE coursework examples students are able to;
  • obtain new and innovative ideas as to how to write their coursework
  • learn the many types of formats which are to be adhered
  • obtain information on certain subjects
  • Have an understanding of the standard of writing, analysis and evidence inclusion
  • learn how to organize their coursework papers logically and cohesively
Apart from these benefits, by going through a few examples students will be able to kick start their own creativity and ideas that can help come up with a proper coursework.
Obtaining Examples of GCSE Coursework
Coursework examples of GCSE can be found online through many online academic writing services. These writing services provide coursework examples which have been written by professionals and as a result students are guaranteed that the examples they download are authentic and are written accordingly. Many students will find examples useful as it provides direction with the students' own work and guide them on the approach to be taken in handling coursework.
GCSE coursework is an important aspect of students' lives. Passing them well lays the foundation to progress on to higher levels of academic studies as A Level or Baccalaureate certifications. By referring to GCSE examples, students can make their own coursework more effective and geared towards the coursework requirements.

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15 Most Useful Tips to Avoid a Nervous Breakdown During Exams

The students who are nervous and stressed out tend to forget what they have studied, especially in the exam hall. They fail to remember what they have studied simply because of the stress. So, the question here is how students can avoid the nervous breakdown during exams, when there is great pressure of studies. So, here is a list of tips on how to avoid nervous breakdown during exams.
1. Attend Classes Regularly
If you really desire to avoid stress during exams and succeed in your examination, then ensure to attend each class with sincerity, without skipping it. Attending lectures with sincerity and dedication will help you alleviate the stress level during exams and understand the subject better. This will make your studies enjoyable during exams, but not a burden.
2. Note the Lectures
Attending the lecturers regularly is not enough; instead you also need note down the important things said by the instructor during the lecture. Note down every incident that your instructor tells you, make diagrams carefully so that when you forget anything you can simply open the book and memorize it easily.
3. Be Prepared
You need to prepare yourself for the exam and ensure that you are well aware what you have learned. Make sure you have all the essays, books and notes handy with you. If you are not aware how the marks are allocated and what format the exam takers, then inquiry with your teachers or else simply visit the exam board's website for better understanding.
4. Make a Plan
Planning how much time you require for revision and how you can utilize it in the best way possible by making a timetable can greatly reduce the stress level during exams and help you avoid a nervous breakdown. The best trick suggested by management experts is taking the overwhelming task as a challenge and simply breaking it down into handy chunks for easy management. Possibly, you may need to spend more time in certain subjects than others. So, it is suggested to vary your timetable and routine so that you don't get bored reading a particular subject. You may update the plan regularly or when necessary.
5. Know When and Where You Work Best
It is best said that one must only work when they are highly alert. Different students have different body clocks. Some prefer to study at night, while some dawn lark and prefer studying during day time. The revision styles also different as some students like to study in a tidy library desk, while some prefer to read under the duvet along with their gadgets. So, wherever the students feel calm, relaxed and in control, it is the best place to deal with the exam stress.
6. Group Study
Several students are quite nervous, either due to fast approaching exams or because of the longer courses, and as a result they can't memorize the lessons appropriately. There might be a variety of topics that you couldn't understand in your classes. So, for such situations you may seek help from your fellow students who have sound knowledge about the particular topics. The group is studying not only help students to clarify things easily, but also make studies quite enjoyable and easier to memorize.
7. Stay Refreshed by Taking Breaks
According to psychologists, a person can only concentrate on things properly for 45 minutes at a stretch. Some of the neuroscientists have revealed that the longer a person tries to focus on things, the less their brains are able to deal with the things effectively. So, it is important to stay refreshed by taking breaks in between of your studies. Rather than cramming more on revision and taking stress to deal with exams, it is suggested to take breaks and do something different to avoid nervous breakdown during exams.
8. Eat Healthy
Eating healthy is very crucial and by keeping the blood sugar level stable students can avoid energy dips during daytime and can enjoy sound sleep during night, which is very crucial to deal with exam stress. If you are still nervous during exams, then definitely you will avoid having foods, but don't forget to drink lots of water. You may refer internet to find out a proper diet plan to alleviate the stress level during exams.
9. Try to Avoid Stimulants
Students sometime start consuming drugs, alcohol, cigarettes and caffeine as they believe that it is their stimulant that helps them to deal with the exam stress without knowing its adverse effects. All these things actually leave them craving more and excessive use may even slow or bring them down or over stimulate them.
10. Get Exercise
Probably, this is the best technique for students to deal with their exam stress. Bike riding, swimming, and a walk with your dog significantly reduce physical tension, resulting in body aches and pain which releases the natural feel-good brain chemicals.
11. Sleep Well
It is undeniable fact that the students often turn and toss for the entire night before their exams and as a result their body copes with lack of sleep and they find difficulty writing their exam papers next day. If you find difficulty sleeping at night before your exams due to stress, then try to do something repetitively. Sleeping is quite necessary before exams because it helps you to awake with a refreshing mind next day so that you can prepare yourself for the exam.
12. Relaxation is Necessary
Students who are anxious about their exams should always try to keep themselves relax and find a quiet and calm place where they can breathe deeply in & out, focusing their mind in some pleasant things or memories. They may try to do something that helps them to unwind.
13. Discussing About Exams With Someone
Almost every student finds their exams a stressful task, so you are not alone indeed. Discussing your worries with a family member, friend, student counselor or school tutor would help you to take the worries out from the system.
14. Revise
It is well said that practice always makes a man perfect! Once you, complete with your studies, it is the time to revise the lessons till the time you master them. You may even ask your family members or friends to take a test to check the accuracy level.
15. Keep it in Perspective
If you think that you have messed up your exam, and then don't panic, nothing can be done until you get your results. Simply getting worried won't help you; it may even decrease the chance of doing well your remaining exams. So, it is better to keep it in perspective.
These were the 15 most useful tips to avoid a nervous breakdown during exams. Students who think studies as a burden and often get worried and stressed during exams may try out these tips to alleviate the stress level and do well in their exams.

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My Relationship with my Parents

I truly value my relationship with my parents. The role of my parents and my siblings in my life can hardly ever be overstated. To begin with, I should state that my parents have always provided me with support. Their opinion has always played a significant role in my decision making process. Whenever I had a problematic situation over the course of my life I would necessarily talk to my parents about an issue that generated a seemingly irresolvable dilemma. I could go talk to my father about almost anything. When I was in high school and actually all my way through college my parents used to give my valuable advices as to what kind of men I should choose for relationships, what classes I should take and what cloths I should put on. They always taught me something. I cannot say that I necessarily followed their advice. The ultimate source that I always refer to when I have to make an important decision is my own brain. I believe that I am smart enough as well as experienced enough to make my own decisions. However, it is always important to consult my parents simply because they might give me a different perspective that I would never think of on my own. Even though their opinion might not be exactly what I am looking for at a particular point in my life, their contribution is extremely valuable. It is hard to explain but sometimes when I get in a really complex position and I feel that I know the answer to a question that torments me I go talk to my parents anyway. Most of the time I am totally positive that I will not take their advice and that my own decision will the one that I will take eventually but it is just important for me to have my parents hear my story and contribute to my decision. In other words there are times when I need someone to talk to. My parents and my siblings are the only people that I will select for that role.
My parents and siblings provide a great deal of moral support at times of trouble. However, the role of those people in my life is not confined to comforting me when I cannot find a way out of a complex situation. My relationship with my brother and sister is somewhat different. Of course my brother and sister support me a lot in almost any situation and I am sure that they are the people that I can count on in case I have a dilemma to deal with. However, there has always been tremendous competition among us in the family. It was always vital for me to excel my siblings in almost every aspect of life. Back when I was a high school student I felt like I needed to pick better grades in all the classes that we took together. When it was time for me to pick a university to apply to I always had to know what schools my brother and sister applied to so that I could apply to a better one. That ultimate desire to be the best in the family has always dominated my personality. At this point I cannot say for sure whether it is a good or bad thing. Sometimes I happened to excel in something and that brought me enormous satisfaction. Other times I would sustain a considerable failure and that would just devastate me completely. Nevertheless, now that I can take a look back at my entire life and consciously evaluation everything I ever did I can confidently state that I would not have accomplished most of the things that I have ever done in my life had I not have my siblings. They were the source of my energy and my drive that motivated and inspired me to persevere and keep going even when a situation was bleak and hopeless. My brother and sister are that people that I have to thank for almost everything that I have achieved over the course of my life. I did not realize that when I was younger. Now I can clearly see their role in my life.

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How to Begin Writing an Essay - The Power of 3 For an Easy Takeoff

So, you've finally sat down to write your essay that is probably due very soon. You're staring at the blank screen thinking to yourself: "Why do I have to do this?!" You're probably having a bunch of other thoughts that you're welcome to share with me and my readers. Let's face it: you have the Acquired White Page Fear Syndrome.
I hear you because I've been there. I've found out for myself that the hardest part of writing an essay is writing that first sentence. So, what is the cure?
The Power of Three:
Write your essay in 3 steps
  1. Write your Thesis Statement
  2. Write your Body
  3. Do the Power Proofread
To Write your Thesis Statement:
  1. Choose your Subject
  2. Choose the Verb
  3. Come up with Three Supporting Points (Yes, the Power of Three again)
1. Your subject is essentially what your essay is about.
Here's an example of a Thesis Statement:
Video gaming benefits the players' health.
What is the Subject of this sentence? In other words, what is this sentence about? It's about Video Gaming. Note that it's not just about video games or the players. It's about the act of playing video games specifically.
2. The Verb simply describes What the Subject Is or Does.
In this example, the Subject is Video Gaming. So, what does it do, according to the thesis statement? It benefits the players' health. So, the verb is 'benefits.'
Now that you have the Subject and the Verb (and, in this case, the Object as well, which is 'the players' health), your Thesis is done. But a Thesis is only the main part of the Thesis Statement. In order to complete the Thesis Statement, you need to do Step 3:
3. Come up with Three Supporting Points (Yes, the Power of Three again).
So, instead of being stuck thinking of what to write next, here is a great way to make your essay creativity explode:
Come up with 3 Supporting Points to support your Thesis. What can they be? The easiest thing to do is to just think of your thesis as an answer to a question. So, if the aforementioned thesis is the answer, then what would be the question?
How does video gaming benefit the players' health?
Or,
In which ways does video gaming benefit the players' health?
And since you are using the Power of Three, here's your answer:
Video gaming benefits the players' health in three ways.
Okay. Do you see where this is going? Now you have a nice little structure forming. And all you have to do is to come up with three ways that video gaming can benefit the players' health. Here are just some of the ideas:
Video Gaming can benefit health in the following ways:
  • It improves hand-eye coordination
  • It provides a relief from stress
  • It burns calories
Wow! I can't believe I just came up with three health benefits of video gaming! And I did it without doing any research. And it took me about a minute. Now, if you're writing a research paper, then you better go on the Internet and do a simple search to validate these claims. However, if you're just writing for a writing class, such as English 101, then chances are that your professor or instructor doesn't care if you've done your research and only cares about the quality of your essay.
And now - your complete thesis statement:
Video gaming benefits the players' health in three ways. First, it improves hand-eye coordination. Second, it provides a relief from stress. And finally, it burns calories.
And that's your first paragraph. Now, depending on how many pages your essay needs to be, just focus on a section at a time and provide some evidence. I'll show you how to do just that in another article.
So, do you see how the Power of Three can help you write your first few sentences? Feel free to drop me a line if you have any questions or comments.
Philip Saparov
Philip Saparov taught college-level composition at the City University of New York. Today he focuses on making essay writing quick, easy, and fun for college students all over the world.

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Best IELTS Language for Academic Writing Task 1

In this article I'd like to look at some of the best IELTS language for Academic Writing Task 1.
First of all, have a quick look at 'Data to analyse in IELTS Academic Writing Task 1' on my site to get an idea of the different types of graphical data you might have to analyse.
OK, did you check them out? Good, now we can jump right in to looking at some useful language.
Academic IELTS Writing Task 1 is basically asking us to describe trends, so first of all, I'd like to look at some of the most common language used to describe trends.
TO INDICATE UPWARD MOVEMENT
Nouns Verbs
a rise / to rise
an increase / to increase / to go up
a climb / to climb
a jump / to jump
TO INDICATE DOWNWARD MOVEMENT
Nouns Verbs
a fall / to fall
a drop / to drop
a decline / to decline
a decrease / to decrease
TO INDICATE STABILITY AND FLUCTUATION
to level off at...
to remain stable at...
to remain steady at...
to fluctuate
to reach a peak
to hit a trough
As well as having language to describe the trend, we also need to be able to describe the degree of difference.
DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE
  • Large difference
X increased rapidly / sharply / dramatically / significantly (adverbs to go with verbs).
There was a rapid / sharp / dramatic / significant increase (adjectives to go with nouns).
X decreased suddenly / abruptly / steeply (adverbs to go with verbs).
There was a sudden / abrupt / steep decrease (adjectives to go with nouns).
  • Small difference
X increased steadily / moderately / slightly / gradually / slowly (adverbs to go with verbs).
There was a steady / moderate / slight / small increase (adjectives to go with nouns).
X decreased steadily / moderately / slightly / gradually / slowly (adverbs to go with verbs).
There was a steady / moderate / slight / gradual / small decrease (adjectives to go with nouns).
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
One of the biggest problems students tell me they have when answering Academic IELTS Writing Task 1 is actually putting all this language together to make a coherent response to the question.
IELTS Writing responses require a systematic approach and I usually give my students the following two example tables so they can organise their answers well and achieve the best IELTS score possible.
Time period / Subject of the sentence / Verb to describe change / Adverb to describe how much change
E.g.
From January to February, sales rose dramatically.
From February to April, sales fell slightly.
From April to June, sales increased moderately.
Time period /'there' + verb 'to be' in appropriate tense to introduce the subject /
Adjective to describe the amount of change / Noun to describe change
E.g.
From January to February, there was a dramatic rise in sales.
From February to April, there was a slight fall in sales.
From April to June, there was a moderate increase in sales.
Now let's look at the individual columns in greater detail so that we can get more variety of language in our answer. I have seen many students simply write 'a catalogue of details' (and then it went up, then it went down, then it increased again etc) when they answer an IELTS Writing Task 1; a variety of expressions is necessary to make your writing more interesting and get a higher band score.
TIME PERIOD
'From January to February.....'
We could also use the following alternatives:
  • For one month
  • Over the next month
  • For a period of one month
  • During the next month
SENTENCE SUBJECT
When you describe change, it is important to be clear about what exactly is changing. Let's say, for example, that the topic of the graph in the two tables was 'cars'. We cannot say 'cars increased' but 'the sales of cars increased' or 'car sales increased'.
If the graph was describing the increase in cars on Sydney roads, then we would say 'the number of cars increased' or 'car numbers increased'.
VERBS, ADVERBS, NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
See the selection at the beginning of the post.
Keep these guidelines in mind when doing practice IELTS Writing Task 1; you'll soon find that using a variety of language will come naturally to you and that your answer will have a clear structure.

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How to Write a College-Level Essay

Writing an essay is pretty much like pouring your own experience and accumulated knowledge from a certain field into words. That's why it's called academic writing. For some people it comes as naturally as drinking water, but for others it can prove to be challenging.
There are several major issues students come across in essay writing, and they can be divided into two groups.
Group one is pretty much your standard how to find and extract information. This bit is very easy to overcome, it just takes a bit of practice and effort. Let's say, for example, you have to write a paper on Shakespeare, his life, work and place him within a historical context.
Where do you start? First, you have to formulate a question, or questions, that will help you decide what your essay is about. In this case, questions like:
-When was Shakespeare born, where did he live and when did he die?
-What was the political structure of his country in the time he worked?
-What did Shakespeare do that made him so famous?
-Why is his work so appreciated?
After you asked the questions, it's time to look for books, journals and other sources that will help you learn how to answer them. Google books, Google Scholar and your College library are as good a place to start as any, so head there. Important part about literature research is to ask the database correct questions. We need data on Shakespeare, so phrases like English Medieval literature; Shakespeare - life and work and similar are a great place to start.
Once you found 3-4 core readings, additional sources will pop up by themselves as you read. Check the sources sections of the works you found, they will usually hold a great deal of potentially useful titles.
Now that we taken care of the sources, and we know what should we write about, the only thing remaining to do is to actually write the damn thing. Easy? No, but it can be, with a bit of effort.
Group two is much trickier to master, as it requires grammar, vocabulary and synthesis capability. Hey, nobody said that custom essay writing is easy.
Essentially, what you have to do is constrict the material from the sources into an essay (usually 5-10 pages long) about a single topic. Keep in mind that the information within must be focused on the topic, so any type of buzzing around the bush is not a good idea.
Best bet would be to divide your essay, physically into smaller segments, for example
-Introduction
-Body 1
-Body 2
-Body 3
-Body 4
-Body 5
-Conclusion
These segments should correspond with the essay questions we talked about earlier. Try to answer each question in as much detail as you possibly can, while adding a pinch of personal view. Not much, but just enough to give it that personal touch.

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Medieval Castles - An Essay

Castles remind us of a time that was full of adventure and romance. Castles remind us of a time in history in which there was a lack of government and order. Although there was not mass confusion and anarchy, there was less order. Castles were the basis of feudalism. Castles can be seen as a manifestation of feudal society. Feudalism started with the rise of castles and ended with their end. The castle set the tone as the only homestead that nobility would live in during this time. Castles were influenced by and influenced many medieval cathedrals in Europe. Although castles served many purposes, their primary purpose was military. At that time, people were not protected by merely shutting and locking a regular wooden door. They needed the protection of castles and their knights. The lords and constables of castles needed serfs to work the land to make revenue in order to pay rent to the more important nobles. Given the following evidence, it is relatively obvious why castles and castle building played an instrumental role in the development of Western Europe.
Castles are unique to a time in history known as medieval times. The word medieval in our times is an insult to anything as is the word feudal. Through the haze and ruins, one can imagine dungeons, chivalrous knights, and mighty Lords who ruled the land and protected the common peasant from barbarians and other invaders. The rise of castles marked the rise of feudalism. This was all started by the crusades. The majority of the knights and nobles went to liberate the holy land from the Muslims. The Crusades influenced castle builders back in Europe. Ideas were gathered from Muslim and Byzantine fortifications. Because of the lack of protection in Europe, a castle's strength needed to be increased because of the ever-present threat of a Muslim invasion. The end of Feudalism also marked the end of the middle ages and hence the end of the great castle era.
Castles integrated the combination of residence and fortress. The first castle dates back to King Sargon II of Khorsabad in ancient Egypt. He erected a grand palace for himself to protect him and his subjects. The first recorded references to castles was the Edict of Pistes by Charles the Bald, king of the West Franks. "We will and expressly command that whoever at this time has made castles and fortifications and enclosures without our out permission shall have them demolished by the First of August" (Brown Architecture of Castles 13). Other castle laws were the Norman Institutions handed down by William the Conqueror after he took over England. One law says that no one shall raise castles in Normandy without the Duke's license.
An ideal castle site was one that had natural obstacles for defense such as steep hillsides and water. Castles that were built on rocks or islands were especially effective. An example of this is Bodiam in Sussex which was the home of Sir Edward Dalyngrigge in 1385. A moat offered good protection, but building on a lake or river offered better protection. The site should not be too remote. It should have water and building material readily available nearby. A site should have a good climate, good pasture, and ample fertile land. If a castle had all these things, it would increase its chances of surviving a siege.
A large majority of early castles followed the motte and bailey design. These designs utilized earth and timber. A motte and bailey design is a design where the keep is on a hill or motte behind the bailey which is the open area of the castle similar to a town square. A bridge usually connected the motte to the bailey. The motte was a great mound of earth or rock. Sometimes it was artificial, but the majority of the time it was authentic. At its base there was a deep trench that resembled a moat. This was used as defense. Surrounding the motte was a wall of timber. The motte also contained the keep which is where the lord of the manor and his family lived. The keep was the innermost part of the castle. It was the last defense against attack. The keep has also been referred to as the donjon. This is where the French got the word dungeon meaning the jail or place to hold prisoners. Surrounding the entire premises was a wooden fence that was at least ten feet in height. These wooden stakes were then implanted in the ground for support. The fence sometimes stood upon posts to allow men to get through. During a siege, the perimeter would be covered with wet animal skins to curb the threat of arson. Most motte and bailey castles were built before William the Conqueror's conquest in 1066.
Walter the Archdeacon wrote a biography of John, bishop of Therouanne about 1130. In it he describes Merchem Castle near Dixmude: "There was, near the porch of the church, a fortress which we may call a castle... exceedingly high, built after the custom of that land by the lord of the town many years before. For it is the habit of the magnates and nobles of those parts... to raise a mound of earth as high as they can and surround it with a ditch as broad as possible. The top of this mound they completely enclose with a palisade of hewn logs bound close together like a wall, with towers set in its circuit so far as the site permits. In the middle of the space within the palisade they build a residence, or, dominating everything, keep" (Brown Architecture of Castles 21)
Castle designers saw a need for improvement because wood and earth were not strong and were not effective protection against fire. There was also a need for bigger, grander castles because noble visitors did not travel alone so a castle would have to have enough room for the occasional visitor and his or her group. The architects who designed castles were known as master masons. They saw that stone would be a more effective building material. Although it was cold and hard to work with, it provided the much needed protection against fire. These newer castles are called enclosure castles. Like motte and dailey designs, enclosures castles had a wall protecting the perimeter of the manor. However these castles were not built upon hills or mottes. The keep of the castle was incorporated into the wall surrounding the property. These castles still had a bailey. With this new style of castles came a new construction material. Stone became the only material to build one's castle out of because it made castles much stronger against attack. The tower of London is an example of a masonry castle. The ideal stone for castles was the fine limestone of Caen in Normandy. This limestone was soft when first quarried, but gradually became hard as it was exposed to air. To insulate against the cold stone walls of castles, the women made tapestries for the walls. The tapestries almost always contained a story relating to the castle. One of the most famous tapestries is the Bayeux Tapestry. It depicts the Norman knights before Hastings in 1066. Since they were now using stone, castle builders were able to integrate defenses into the castles.
Castles needed to have defenses. They were not made impregnable. They were made so that it would take an enormous amount of artillery and money to take the castle. They were made so that it would take a large amount of time to take a castle. The castle of Newcastle at Tyne was far from impregnable in 1173, but it was strong enough to make an ill-prepared Scottish King William think twice about a siege: "Well sees the king of Scotland that he will never complete the conquest of Newcastle on Tyne without military engines" (Ibid 80). Some defenses used by castles were machiolations. Machiolations were projecting battlements to protect against arrows and other weapons. They were at the top of the wall surrounding the castle. Arrowslits or arrow loops were slits that were cut into stone to allow sharpshooters a place to shoot. They were angled so that the sharpshooter was protected from oncoming projectiles. Another defense used was Greek fire. This was an incendiary device that was used against wooden attack machines. The ingredients of Greek fire are a mystery. It is thought that it contained some of the following components: crude oil, refined oil, naphtha, pitch, resin, sulfur, quicklime, and bitumen. This deadly mixture was put on an arrow and then shot onto one of the attacking machines and it gave explosive results. Greek fire was probably developed in the seventh century by the Byzantines for naval warfare. Greek fire was a morale builder for the defenders during a siege. The Lord of Joinville described Greek fire as "This Greek fire was suck that seen from the front as it darted towards us it appeared as large as a vessel of verjuice, and the tail of the fire that streamed behind it was as long as the shaft of a great lance. The noise it made in coming was like that of a thunderbolt falling from the skies; it seemed like a dragon flying through the air. The light this huge, flaming mass shed all around it was so bright that you could see right through the camp as clearly as if it were day. Three times that night the enemy slung Greek fire at us from their petraries, and three times they shot it from their arbalestres a tour" (Ibid 88).
Weapons were used against castles during a siege included the trebuchet, mangonel, belfry, ballista, ram, and bore. The trebuchet was a big machine that flung artillery like a catapult. The mangonel was similar to the trebuchet but smaller and more maneuverable. Its strength was based on the tautness of the hemp, rope, or tightly twisted animal sinew. Artillery used by these weapons include rocks, fireballs, and dead animals to spread disease. The belfry was a mobile tower which was built higher than the castle walls in order to scale them during siege. The ballista was essentially a large crossbow that hurled rocks and other large boulders. The ram was a device that did what its name says. It was used to knock the portcullis or gate down. The bore was a device used by the attackers during a tactic known as mining. They mined from their camps to the castle walls. They would set up a support then start a fire to break down the castle walls. The defenders of the castle also used this tactic to counter the attackers siege. They would watch the moat to see the vibrations caused by the attackers shovels. Then they would start a counter mine. This was the most effective tactic used in a siege but it was the most dangerous. It was dark, had contaminated or little air and there was always a threat that the tunnel would cave in or be caved in by the castle's garrison.
Castles were not just fortresses but also residences of the nobility. It is this balance of military and residential qualities which make a castle so different from other fortifications. Castles had all the best furnishings and colors. They had chapels because Europe was a Christian continent. They occasionally had more than one. On the castle property were things like gardens, parks, vineyards, dovecotes, fishponds, mills, and stables. Castle were not as primitive as we think them to be. They had some of the conveniences that we have today. They had a form of a toilet. It was a toilet made of stone. People who wished to use it had to bring some material to protect themselves from the cold stone. The waste would eventually drain to a river by way of an underground pool. These cesspits would often have to be cleaned out by dung farmers.

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